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Her most successful choice was the promotion of The Duke de Choiseul , who became one of the King's most effective ministers. She ceased to be the King's mistress in but remained his closest advisor. She was promoted to Duchess in , and Dame of the Queen's Palace in , and was an important patron of music and the arts, as well as religious establishments.
She remained close to the King until her death in He was devastated and remained in seclusion for several weeks after she died. The peace achieved by Louis with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle lasted only seven years. She proposed a secret alliance between Austria and France, to meet the threats of the growing power of Prussia, which was still formally an ally of France, and Britain.
In the New World, conflict had already begun between Britain and France. The French colonies were at an enormous demographic disadvantage; there were less than 70, French colonists spread over a territory from the Saint Lawrence River to the Great Lakes extending down the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys down to Louisiana named for Louis's grandfather, Louis XIV ; compared with , in the British colonies.
To defend its territories. France had constructed Fort Duquesne to defend their frontier against the Americans; Britain sent the young George Washington with a small force to construct his own fortification, Fort Necessity , nearby. In , after the killing of French envoy, Joseph Coulon de Jumonville , the French sent reinforcements and compelled Washington and his men to withdraw.
The undeclared French and Indian War followed, with Britain treating the French colonies as an enemy. In , the British seized French merchant ships. In January , Louis sent an ultimatum to London, which was rejected by the British government.
A few months later, on 16 January , Frederick the Great of Prussia signed the Treaty of Westminster , allying himself with Britain. Louis responded immediately on 1 May by sealing a formal defensive treaty with Austria, the first Treaty of Versailles , offering to defend Austria in case of a Prussian attack.
This was a complete reversal of France's historic conflict with Austria, which had been underway for nearly two hundred years, and it was shocking to many in the French Court.
Louis declared war on England on 9 June , and success seemed certain. A French fleet in the Mediterranean defeated the British at the Battle of Minorca of , and captured that island. The French army greatly outnumbered the British and Prussians on the continent.
However, the best French commander, Maurice de Saxe , had died two years after the War of the Austrian Succession , and the new French commanders, Charles, Prince of Soubise , the Duke D'Estrees and the Duke de Broglie detested each other, and were rarely willing to cooperate. In August Frederick of Prussia made a lightning strike into Saxony and on 5 November , though outnumbered by the French nearly two to one, decisively defeated the army of the Prince de Soubise at the Battle of Rossbach.
Thereafter, Britain and Prussia held the upper hand, tying down the French army in the German states along the Rhine. British naval supremacy prevented France from reinforcing its colonies overseas, and British naval squadrons raided the French coast at Cancale and Le Havre and landed on the Ile d'Aix and Le Havre.
A series of naval defeats forced Louis to abandon plans for invasion of Britain. In India, the French colony at Pondicherry was surrounded by the British, and surrendered the following year. On 8 September , Montreal surrendered, bringing to an end French rule in Canada. Martinique fell to the British in The King's guards seized Damien, and the King ordered them to hold him but not harm him.
The King walked up the steps to his rooms at the Trianon, where he found he was bleeding seriously. He summoned his doctor and a priest, and then fainted. When the news reached Paris, anxious crowds gathered in the streets. Damien was tortured to see if he had accomplices, and was tried before the Parlement of Paris , which had been the most vocal critic of the King.
The house where he was born was burned down, his father, wife and daughter were banished from France, and his brothers and sisters were required to change their name. One of his chief courtiers, Duford de Chervrny, wrote afterwards: The Parlements were assemblies of nobles in Paris and older regions of France, whose members served as magistrates and judged civil cases.
Their members included both hereditary nobles and wealthy citizens who had purchased their seats. Several of the Parlements, such as those of Rouen and Provence, had been in existence for centuries, and saw themselves as the legitimate governments in their provinces.
As Louis reorganized the government and appointed his own intendents in the provinces, the authority and prestige of the Parlements decreased, and price of the seats dropped. When the Intendants of King attempted the assert their authority and collect taxes from all classes, the Parlements went on strike, refusing to proceed with the judgment of civil cases.
The civil justice system came to a halt. In , the provincial Parlement of Normandy in Rouen wrote a protest to the King, explaining that the King had the exclusive power to tax, but the Parlement had the exclusive right to collect the money. The King rejected the explanation and overruled the Parlement , banished some of his most provocative Parliament members to their estates.
For the rest of his reign, the Parlements swore allegiance to the King, but took every opportunity to resist his new taxes and the King's authority. This was one of the seeds of resistance to the King's authority that was to turn into a Revolution less than thirty years later.
The Comte d'Argenson served as the Minister of War from until He was an advocate of the continuation of the absolute monarchy in the style of Louis XIV. Machaud D'Arnouville was brought into the government with the sponsorship of d'Argenson, but the two men gradually became rivals and enemies. D'Arnouville was the Controller of Finances from to , then Minister of Navy from to He was the creator of the unpopular "Vingtieme" tax , which taxed all citizens, including the nobility, at the same rate, and also freed the prices of grain , which initially greatly increased agricultural production.
The fluctuation of grain prices would eventually become a factor in the French Revolution. On 1 February , the King abruptly dismissed both d'Arnouville and d'Argenson, and exiled them to their estates; The King held them responsible for not preventing the assassination attempt, and their government displeased Madame de Pompadour.
Louis named the Duke de Choiseul as his minister of foreign affairs on 3 December , following the recommendation of Madame de Pompadour.
In , he became Minister of War, giving the role of minister of foreign affairs to his cousin, the Duc de Praslin. A few months later, he also became the Minister of the Navy, and became the most influential and powerful member of the government. In the council and circles of government, he was the leader of the philisophe faction, which included Madame de Pompadour, which sought to appease the Parlements and the Jansenists.
His most notable accomplishment was the reform modernization of the French military, based on the lessons learned during the Seven Years' War. Under Choiseul, the government, rather than the officers, took the responsibility of training, giving uniforms, and training soldiers. The artillery was standardized, and new tactics, based on the Prussian model, were adopted and taught.
The Navy in had been reduced to just 47 vessels and twenty frigates, three times smaller than the British Royal Navy. He launched a major shipbuilding program to construct eighty vessels and forty-five new frigates, which would allow the French fleet, combined with the allied Spanish fleet, to outnumber the Royal Navy. The Jesuits in France numbered 3,; they had establishments in France, including 85 colleges, which were considered the best in France; their graduates included Voltaire and Diderot.
Agitation against the Jesuits began in in the provincial Parlements, where the Gallicans, supporters of a specifically French version of Catholicism, were strong. The complaint against the Jesuits was that they were independent of the authority of the King and the hierarchy of the church in France.
The Jesuits had already been expelled from Portugal and its colony of Brazil in , because of conflicts with the government and church hierarchy there. In France, the Parlements had taken the lead in attacking the Jesuits. On 12 February , the Parlement of Rouen declared the Jesuits outside the law, forbid them to hold public positions or to teach, and demanded that they take an oath repudiating their beliefs.
The campaign against the Jesuits divided the royal household; his son the Dauphin, his daughters and the Queen supported the Jesuits, while Madame de Pompadaour, whose influence in the court was criticized by the Jesuits, wanted them gone. The indecisive King declared two years later that he had made the decision against his own feelings.
The Jesuits departed, and were welcomed in Prussia and in Russia. The departure of the Jesuits weakened the church in France, and especially weakened the authority of the King, who, like a constitutional monarch, acted on behalf of the Parliament against his own beliefs.
Under the government of Choiseul, the Parlements of several French provinces continued to swear obedience to the King, while refusing to obey his intendents or to accept his new taxes. The King's government immediately dismissed the leaders of the Parlement and confined them to their residences. In truth, no one except God can compel you to obey this sacred pact He responded on 31 January that the Parlement's complaint "contained principles so false and so contrary to my authority and with expressions so indecent, particularly in connection with my Chancellor who only explained to you my wishes The Parlement of Bordeaux went even further in its resistance to the royal government; in it brought accusations of corruption against the members of the government of the city of Bergerac , named by the Royal Council of the King.
When the Royal Council blocked the pursuits of the Parlement, the Parlement wrote a protest to the King, declaring, "Sire, your Parlement cannot recognize any intermediate power it and your person; no, your Council has over the Parlement no authority, superiority, or jurisdiction.
The prolonged war drained the treasury of the Kingdom; France paid not only for its own army, but subsidized the armies of its allies; in France paid 19 million livres to its allies, an amount which Choiseul reduced by one-third in The new taxes were extremely unpopular with the aristocracy and wealthy; Silhouette was dismissed after eight months, and his name became the common expression for paper cutout made from a shadow, which, like his ministry, lasted only a moment.
The new Controller of Finances, Henri Bertin , a protege of Madame Pompadour named on 23 November , reduced the luxury taxes of his predecessor, and instead proposed broadening of the tax base to include those classes which had long been excluded, and a new survey of the wealth of the nobility.
Once again the Parliaments rebelled. When the Lieutenant General of Normandy appeared before the Parliament to register the decree. The same scene was reproduced in the other Parlements. Once again the King yielded to Madame de Pomapdour and her allies; the new decrees were withdrawn, Bertin was moved to a different position, the tax rolls were not enlarged, and no new taxes were collected; the debt remained.
On 15 August , France, Spain, Naples and Parma, all ruled by monarchs of the Bourbon family, signed the first "Family Pact" with a system of reciprocal guarantees of support if one or the other were attacked. The military forces of Frederick the Great in Prussia had been nearly exhausted in the long war against the combined forces of Austria and Russia; but Frederick was saved by the sudden death of the Tsarina Elizabeth in , and her replacement by Peter III of Russia , a fervent admirer of the Prussian King.
Choiseul had taken over direction of the French navy as well as the army in October , and he pressed for an offensive to bring the war to a successful end. He persuaded the Parlements and the chambers of commerce of the major French cities to sponsor the construction of warships, and rebuilt the French Navy.
The French army launched a new offensive against the Prussians and Spain, as promised by its agreement with France, launched an invasion in Portugal, an ally of Britain. However, once again the French initiatives were not enough.
The French offensive in Hess-Kassel was defeated by the Prussians, the Spanish army in Portugal made little progress, and the British took the opportunity to land on Martinique and to invade Spain's colony Cuba. Choiseul decided it was time to end the war. The preliminary negotiations opened at Palace of Fontainebleau on 3 November , and ended hostilities between England, France and Spain.
The final treaty was signed in Paris on 10 February As a result of the War, France gave up its minor possessions in the West Indies; Marie Galante , Tobago and La Desiderade, but received back Guadaloupe , Martinique , and Santa Lucia , which, because of their sugar plantations, were considered of more value than all of its territories in Canada; France kept only the Iles of Cape Breton and of the Saint-Laurence river; the valley of the Ohio, and the territories along the west bank of the Mississippi River.
Louis formally ratified the treaty on 23 February, on the same day that his statue was unveiled on the Place Louis XV today the Place de la Concorde [80]. The winter of was particularly harsh; Madame de Pompadour contracted pneumonia, and died on 15 April.
The King was deeply affected, but, strictly observing court protocol, he did not attend her funeral, because she was too far below his rank, and, though mourning, carried on court business as usual. Maneuvering immediately began within the court to replace Madame de Pompadour; a leading candidate was Duchess of Gramont, the sister of Choiseul, but the King showed no interest in a new mistress, and in February he closed down the Parc-aux-Cerfs, where he had previously met his petites maitresses.
The resistance of the Parlements to the King's authority continued. The Parlements of the provinces began to quarrel with the Parlement of Paris over which more truly represented the nation. In March , the Parlement of Navarre in Pau , the smallest province, refused to accept the taxation authority of the Grand Council of the King.
This time the King took action, arresting and replacing the President and leading officers of the Parlement, and replacing them with officers loyal to the King. In the Parlement of Brittany in Rennes denied the authority of the King's officers to impose taxes without its permission, and went on strike.
The King summoned the Parlement to Versailles, where he had his lecture read to them. This had little effect; when the King had his decree to the Parlement posted on the walls of Rennes, the Parlement ordered that the posters with the King's proclamation be taken down.
The King issued letters of cachet that forbade the Parlement members to leave Rennes, but the judicial system remained on strike. The end of brought another personal tragedy; his son and heir Louis contracted tuberculosis.
He travelled with the King to the Palace of Fontainebleau. The Dauphin died on 20 December The succession was assured, since the Dauphin had a son, the future Louis XVI, who was of age to rule, but the death put him into a deep depression.
He drafted his own will, writing: The Queen was deeply affected by the death of the Dauphin in , then the death of her father in , and then her daughter-in-law. She died on 24 June In January , while the King was still mourning the death of the Dauphin, the Parlement of Brittany issued another rejection of the King's authority to collect taxes.
When he ignored it, both the Parlement of Rennes and the Parlement of Rouen wrote him again, complaining that he was ignoring "the oath that you took to the nation when accepting the crown. In his message, read to them by one of his ministers, he declared, "It is in my person alone that sovereign power resides To me alone belongs the legislative power, without dependence and without sharing The public order emanates entirely from me Confusion and anarchy are taking the place of legitimate order, and the scandalous spectacle of a contradictory rivaling my sovereign power reduces me to the sad necessity to use all the power that I received from God to preserve my peoples from the sad consequences of these enterprises.
It became his political testament. The conflict between the Parlements and King was muted for a time, but not resolved. After the death of the Madame de Pompadour, several women in the court sought to replace her, including the Duchess of Gramont, the sister of the Duke of Choiseul, the King's chief minister. She was thirty-three years younger than the King.
She began to hold a salon, which attracted writers and aristocrats. Since Jean du Barry was already married, to give her legitimacy he arranged for her to become engaged to his brother, Guillaume, a retired soldier.
They were married on 1 September , and then, without spending the night with her, Guillaume retired to his home in Languedoc.
He invited her to Fontainebleau , and then asked her to live in the Palace of Versailles. Her appearance at the Court scandalized the Duke de Choiseul, but pleased the enemies of the Duke within the Court. For du Barry to be presented at Court, she had to be formally presented by a member of the nobility.
None of the ladies of the Court attended, and de Choiseul himself, to show his displeasure, hosted a large reception the following day, which all the Court, except du Barry, attended.
The King soon installed her in the Palace of Versailles, and in gave her the new Pavillon de Louveciennes. Choiseul sowed a strong dislike for DuBarry, as did Marie Antoinette , who arrived in Versailles and married the Dauphin on 16 May She described the Comtesse as "The most stupid and impertinent creature imaginable". However, the King kept du Barry close to him until the final days before his death, when he sent her away before he made confession.
The presence of du Barry at the court scandalized the high members of the Aristocracy. Outside the Court, the opponents of the King in the Parlements used her presence to ridicule and attack the King. She was the target of dozens of scandalous pamphlets accusing her of every possible immoral act.
The borders of France were enlarged for the last time before the Revolution by two additions; The Duchy of Lorraine , ruled by The King's father-in-law, Stanislas, reverted to France after his death, and officially was joined to the kingdom 27—28 March The acquisition of Corisca was more complicated.
The island formally belonged to the Republic of Genoa , but an independent Republic of Corsica had been proclaimed in by Pasquale Paoli , and the rebels controlled most of the island. The Republic of Genoa did not have the military forces to conquer the island, and permitted Louis to send French troops to occupy the ports and major cities, to keep the island from falling into British hands.
When the war ended, the island was formally granted to France by Treaty of Versailles on 19 May Louis sent the army to subdue the Corsican rebels; the army on the island eventually numbered twenty-seven thousand soldiers. In the island formally became a Province of France. Two men had an enormous influence on the economic policies of the King.
Louis referred to him as "my thinker. He was a critic of government regulation, and coined the term "bureaucracy" literally "A government of desks".
The two men advocated removing as many restrictions as possible from the economy, to encourage greater production and trade.
De Gournay's famous expression, laissez faire, laissez passer "it be done, let it pass" was later adopted as the slogan of a whole school of free market economics. De Gournay and Quesnay proposed in particular the liberalization of agricultural markets, which were strictly controlled, to encourage greater production, competition and lower prices.
Following the doctrines of Quesnay and de Gournay, Louis's controller of finances, Henri Bertin , created a new Society of Agriculture and an Agricultural Committee within the government, comparable to those existing to support commerce.
In May , Bertin issued a decree permitting the tax-free circulation of grain without taxes. In August , Bertin permitted the export of grain from twenty-seven French ports, later expanded to third-six. At the same time he established a large zone around Paris, where grain was reserved exclusively for feeding the Parisians, and established a cap on the grain price, which, if it was passed, would cause the exports to cease.
The policy of freeing grain prices was effective in good years, and resulted in increased trade and lower prices, but during years with poor harvests; , and , prices went up.
Most of the Parlements, in regions which produced grain, supported the policy, but others, including Paris and Rouen, were highly critical.
In those cities rumors began to circulate of a mythical "Starvation Pact", a supposed plot by the government to deliberately starve and eliminate the poor. These rumors eventually became one of the factors that provoked the French Revolution.
The Duc de Choiseul devoted all of his considerable energy and talents to preparing a new war against Britain. In , in a former Jesuit school he had closed, he created a new military preparatory school, to prepare students for the recently founded Military Academy.
In he raised the Naval school to the level of a royal academy, to train officers for his new fleet. In the same year he established a military engineering school. He provided the army with hundreds of new cannons, which would be used with great success decades later during the French Revolution and by Napoleon.
Using the Prussian army as a model, he reformed French military doctrine, making the state and not the officers responsible for training and equipping soldiers. A large part of the French Navy had been sunk or captured by the British in the Seven Years' War, In addition to the existing naval arsenals in Toulon, Brest and Rochefort, he opened two more in Marseille and Lorient The arsenals began building new ships; by the Navy had sixty-six ships of the line, thirty-five frigates, and twenty-one new corvettes.
When the Duc de Broglie learned that the British were planning to tax the citizens of the British colonies in America, he wrote to the King: Choiseul was so entirely focused on England as his future enemy that he almost entirely neglected the rest of Europe.
He had no accredited Ambassadors in Poland, Prussia or Russia during most of the period, and stood by while Russia imposed its own candidate for King of Poland, and when Turkey and Russia went to war in A new conflict between England and Spain over the remote Falkland Islands in brought about Choiseul's downfall.
The British had established a settlement in the islands, which were also claimed by Spain. In early the Spanish governor of Buenos Aires sent five warships full of troops to the islands, ordering the British to leave. The British prepared to depart. When the news reached London, the British government demanded that the Spanish leave.
Both sides began to prepare for war. The possibility of a new war came just as France was undergoing a new confrontation between the King's government and the Parlement of Brittany, which once again refused to recognize the power of the King's government to impose taxes. The King wrote immediately to his cousin, the King of Spain, who wrote back that Spain did not want a war.
Louis replied, "Gentleness and patience have guided me to the present, but my parlements, pushing to limit, have forgotten themselves to the point of disputing the sovereign authority that we possess only from the will of God.
I am resolved to make myself obeyed by all available means A similar note went to his cousin. Choiseul asked for two days to manage his affairs, but the King refused. Explaining the decision later to the Duke de Broglie, the King wrote, "The principles of the Choiseuls are too contrary to religion, and therefore to royal authority. Maupeou and two other conservative ministers, Abbot Terray for finance and the Duc d'Aiguillon for foreign affairs and war, took charge of the government.
They became known as "The Triumvirate". The first priority of Maupeou was to bring the unruly Parlements under control, and to continue with his program for the modernization of the state. Most of the members of the Parlement of Paris were on a virtual strike, refusing to render justice or approve the King's decrees. On 21 January , royal agents and musketeers arrived at the homes of each of the Parlement members, informing them that their positions were confiscated and ordering them to leave Paris and return to their home provinces, and not to leave them.
Another decree announced the abolition of the high fees demanded by the Parlements for resolving civil cases, which were the source of their members' income; civil justice was to be rendered without charge. The powers of the Parlement of Paris alone were largely unchanged.
Without the provincial parliaments, the government was able enact new laws and taxes without opposition. However, after the King's death, the nobility demanded and received the restoration of the regional parliaments.
Abbot Terray was nominally a priest, though his government career was entirely secular, and his personal life was considered scandalous. He was an efficient and relentless tax collector; he opened a school to train tax inspectors, and worked to see that taxes were imposed and collected with the same precision and vigor in all regions, without interference from the local nobility.
When he first took his position, the state had a budget deficit of 60 million livres, and a long-term debt of million livres. By , revenues had been increased by 60 million livres and the debt reduced to 20 million livres. He also reimposed the regulation of the price of grain, which had been freed in and ; these controls were an issue which would disturb the government and provoke agitation until the French Revolution.
The foreign affairs post had been left vacant by Choiseul, who acted as his own foreign minister. Following the dismissal of Choiseul, the King encouraged his cousin and ally Charles III of Spain to settle the crisis over the Falkland Islands with the aim of avoiding a war. Sed accumsan lorem vitae massa mattis convallis.
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One choice is to go truly formal, and have your prom gown one that goes completely to the floor or even has a train in the back for the most formal of looks. The ballerina length dress is also called and categorized as an evening gown.
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